Impax Laboratories Launches Oxymorphone Hydrochloride Extended-Release Tablets

Impax Laboratories Launches Oxymorphone Hydrochloride Extended-Release Tablets

HAYWARD, Calif.--(BUSINESS WIRE)-- Impax Laboratories, Inc. today announced that it is commencing shipment of Oxymorphone Hydrochloride Extended-Release Tablets, through Global Pharmaceuticals, Impax's generics division.

In June 2010, Impax reached agreement with Endo Pharmaceuticals and Penwest Pharmaceuticals (collectively Endo) to settle U.S. patent litigation with regard to the production and sale of its Oxymorphone Hydrochloride Extended-Release Tablets approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as therapeutically equivalent to the original formulation of OPANA^® ER. Under the terms of the settlement, Endo agreed to grant Impax a license to sell Impax's approved product on January 1, 2013.

As a company whose mission is to provide high quality, lower-cost prescription drugs, Impax is actively participating in efforts to support prescriber and patient education of this product through the FDA-approved Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS).

Oxymorphone Hydrochloride Extended-Release Tablets are indicated for the relief of moderate to severe pain in patients requiring continuous, around-the-clock opioid treatment for an extended period of time.

IMPORTANT RISK INFORMATION

Oxymorphone Hydrochloride Extended-Release Tablets, for oral use, CII

BRIEF SUMMARY

WARNING: ABUSE POTENTIAL, LIFE-THREATENING RESPIRATORY DEPRESSION, ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURE, and INTERACTION WITH ALCOHOL

Abuse Potential
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets contains oxymorphone, an opioid agonist and Schedule II controlled substance with an abuse liability similar to other opioid agonists, legal or illicit [see Warnings and Precautions]. Assess each patient's risk for opioid abuse or addiction prior to prescribing oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. The risk for opioid abuse is increased in patients with a personal or family history of substance abuse (including drug or alcohol abuse or addiction) or mental illness (e.g., major depressive disorder). Routinely monitor all patients receiving oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets for signs of misuse, abuse, and addiction during treatment.

Life-threatening Respiratory Depression
Respiratory depression, including fatal cases, may occur with use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, even when the drug has been used as recommended and not misused or abused. Proper dosing and titration are essential and oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets should only be prescribed by healthcare professionals who are knowledgeable in the use of potent opioids for the management of chronic pain. Monitor for respiratory depression, especially during initiation of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets or following a dose increase. Instruct patients to swallow oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets whole. Crushing, dissolving, or chewing oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets can cause rapid release and absorption of a potentially fatal dose of oxymorphone.

Accidental Exposure
Accidental ingestion of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, especially in children, can result in a fatal overdose of oxymorphone.

Interaction with Alcohol
The co-ingestion of alcohol with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may result in an increase of plasma levels and potentially fatal overdose of oxymorphone. Instruct patients not to consume alcoholic beverages or use prescription or non-prescription products that contain alcohol while on oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets.

INDICATIONS AND USAGE
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are indicated for the relief of moderate to severe pain in patients requiring continuous, around-the-clock opioid treatment for an extended period of time.

Limitations of Usage
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are not intended for use:

• As an as-needed (prn) analgesic

• For pain that is mild or not expected to persist for an extended period of time

• For acute pain

• For postoperative pain unless the patient is already receiving chronic opioid therapy prior to surgery or if the postoperative pain is expected to be moderate to severe and persist for an extended period of time.

CONTRAINDICATIONS
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are contraindicated in patients with:

• Significant respiratory depression

• Acute or severe bronchial asthma or hypercarbia

• Known or suspected paralytic ileus

• Moderate and severe hepatic impairment

• Hypersensitivity (e.g. anaphylaxis) to oxymorphone, any other ingredients in oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, or to morphine analogs such as codeine.

WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS
Abuse Potential
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets contains oxymorphone, an opioid agonist and a Schedule II controlled substance. Oxymorphone can be abused in a manner similar to other opioid agonists, legal or illicit. Opioid agonists are sought by drug abusers and people with addiction disorders and are subject to criminal diversion. Consider these risks when prescribing or dispensing oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in situations where there is concern about increased risks of misuse, abuse, or diversion. Concerns about abuse, addiction, and diversion should not, however, prevent the proper management of pain.

Assess each patient's risk for opioid abuse or addiction prior to prescribing oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. The risk for opioid abuse is increased in patients with a personal or family history of substance abuse (including drug or alcohol abuse or addiction) or mental illness (e.g., major depression). Patients at increased risk may still be appropriately treated with modified-release opioid formulations; however these patients will require intensive monitoring for signs of misuse, abuse, or addiction. Routinely monitor all patients receiving opioids for signs of misuse, abuse, and addiction because these drugs carry a risk for addiction even under appropriate medical use.

Misuse or abuse of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets by crushing, chewing, snorting, or injecting the dissolved product will result in the uncontrolled delivery of the opioid and pose a significant risk that could result in overdose and death.

Contact local state professional licensing board or state controlled substances authority for information on how to prevent and detect abuse or diversion of this product.

Life Threatening Respiratory Depression
Respiratory depression is the primary risk of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. Respiratory depression, if not immediately recognized and treated, may lead to respiratory arrest and death. Respiratory depression from opioids is manifested by a reduced urge to breathe and a decreased rate of respiration, often associated with a "sighing" pattern of breathing (deep breaths separated by abnormally long pauses). Carbon dioxide (CO₂) retention from opioid-induced respiratory depression can exacerbate the sedating effects of opioids. Management of respiratory depression may include close observation, supportive measures, and use of opioid antagonists, depending on the patient's clinical status.

While serious, life-threatening, or fatal respiratory depression can occur at any time during the use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, the risk is greatest during the initiation of therapy or following a dose increase. Closely monitor patients for respiratory depression when initiating therapy with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets and following dose increases. Instruct patients against use by individuals other than the patient for whom oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets were prescribed and to keep oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets out of the reach of children, as such inappropriate use may result in fatal respiratory depression.

To reduce the risk of respiratory depression, proper dosing and titration of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are essential. Overestimating the oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets dose when converting patients from another opioid product can result in fatal overdose with the first dose. Respiratory depression has also been reported with use of modified-release opioids when used as recommended and not misused or abused.

To further reduce the risk of respiratory depression, consider the following:

• Proper dosing and titration are essential and oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets should only be prescribed by healthcare professionals who are knowledgeable in the use of potent opioids for the management of chronic pain.

• Instruct patients to swallow oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets intact. The tablets are not to be crushed, dissolved, or chewed. The resulting oxymorphone dose may be fatal, particularly in opioid-naïve individuals.

• Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are contraindicated in patients with respiratory depression and in patients with conditions that increase the risk of life-threatening respiratory depression.

Accidental Exposure
Accidental consumption of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, especially in children, can result in a fatal overdose of oxymorphone.

Interaction with Alcohol
The co-ingestion of alcohol with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets can result in an increase of oxymorphone plasma levels and potentially fatal overdose of oxymorphone. Instruct patients not to consume alcoholic beverages or use prescription or non-prescription products containing alcohol while on oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets therapy.

Elderly, Cachectic, and Debilitated Patients
Respiratory depression is more likely to occur in elderly, cachectic, or debilitated patients as they may have altered pharmacokinetics due to poor fat stores, muscle wasting, or altered clearance compared to younger, healthier patients. Therefore, monitor such patients closely, particularly when initiating and titrating oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets and when oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are given concomitantly with other drugs that depress respiration.

Use in Patients with Chronic Pulmonary Disease
Monitor patients with significant chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cor pulmonale, and patients having a substantially decreased respiratory reserve, hypoxia, hypercapnia, or pre-existing respiratory depression for respiratory depression, particularly when initiating therapy and titrating with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, as in these patients, even usual therapeutic doses of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may decrease respiratory drive to the point of apnea. Consider the use of alternative non-opioid analgesics in these patients if possible.

Interactions with CNS Depressants and Illicit Drugs
Hypotension, profound sedation, coma, or respiratory depression may result if oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are used concomitantly with other CNS depressants (e.g., sedatives, anxiolytics, hypnotics, neuroleptics, other opioids). When considering the use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in a patient taking a CNS depressant, assess the duration of use of the CNS depressant and the patient's response, including the degree of tolerance that has developed to CNS depression. Additionally, consider the patient's use, if any, of alcohol or illicit drugs that cause CNS depression. If oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets therapy is to be initiated in a patient taking a CNS depressant, start with a lower oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets dose than usual and monitor patients for signs of sedation and respiratory depression and consider using a lower dose of the concomitant CNS depressant.

Use in Patients with Hepatic Impairment
A study of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in patients with hepatic disease indicated greater plasma concentrations than those with normal hepatic function. Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are contraindicated in patients with moderate or severe hepatic impairment. In patients with mild hepatic impairment reduce the starting dose to the lowest dose and monitor for signs of respiratory and central nervous system depression.

Hypotensive Effect
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may cause severe hypotension including orthostatic hypotension and syncope in ambulatory patients. There is an increased risk in patients whose ability to maintain blood pressure has already been compromised by a reduced blood volume or concurrent administration of certain CNS depressant drugs (e.g. phenothiazines or general anesthetics). Monitor these patients for signs of hypotension after initiating or titrating the dose of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. In patients with circulatory shock, oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may cause vasodilation that can further reduce cardiac output and blood pressure. Avoid the use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in patients with circulatory shock.

Use in Patients with Head Injury or Increased Intracranial Pressure
Monitor patients taking oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets who may be susceptible to the intracranial effects of CO₂ retention (e.g., those with evidence of increased intracranial pressure or brain tumors) for signs of sedation and respiratory depression, particularly when initiating therapy with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may reduce respiratory drive, and the resultant CO₂ retention can further increase intracranial pressure. Opioids may also obscure the clinical course in a patient with a head injury. Avoid the use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in patients with impaired consciousness or coma.

Use in Patients with Gastrointestinal Conditions
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are contraindicated in patients with paralytic ileus. Avoid the use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in patients with other GI obstruction.

The oxymorphone in oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may cause spasm of the sphincter of Oddi. Monitor patients with biliary tract disease, including acute pancreatitis, for worsening symptoms. Opioids may cause increases in the serum amylase.

Use in Patients with Convulsive or Seizure Disorders
The oxymorphone in oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may aggravate convulsions in patients with convulsive disorders, and may induce or aggravate seizures in some clinical settings. Monitor patients with a history of seizure disorders for worsened seizure control during oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets therapy.

Avoidance of Withdrawal
Avoid the use of mixed agonist/antagonist analgesics (i.e., pentazocine, nalbuphine, and butorphanol) in patients who have received or are receiving a course of therapy with an opioid agonist analgesic, including oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. In these patients, mixed agonists/antagonists analgesics may reduce the analgesic effect and/or may precipitate withdrawal symptoms.

When discontinuing oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, gradually taper the dose. Do not abruptly discontinue oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets.

Driving and Operating Machinery
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets may impair the mental or physical abilities needed to perform potentially hazardous activities such as driving a car or operating machinery. Warn patients not to drive or operate dangerous machinery unless they are tolerant to the effects of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets and know how they will react to the medication.

ADVERSE REACTIONS
The following serious adverse reactions are discussed elsewhere in the labeling:

• Respiratory Depression

• Chronic Pulmonary Disease

• Head Injuries and Increased Intracranial Pressure

• Interactions with Other CNS Depressants

• Hypotensive Effect

• Gastrointestinal Effects

• Seizures

Clinical Trial Experience
Because clinical trials are conducted under widely varying conditions, adverse reaction rates observed in the clinical trials of a drug cannot be directly compared to rates in the clinical trials of another drug and may not reflect the rates observed in clinical practice.

The safety of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets were evaluated in a total of 2011 patients in open-label and controlled clinical trials. The clinical trials enrolled of patients with moderate to severe chronic non-malignant pain, cancer pain, and post surgical pain. The most common serious adverse events reported with administration of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets were chest pain, pneumonia and vomiting.

Tables 1 and 2 list the most frequently occurring adverse reactions (in at least 5% of patients) from the placebo-controlled trials in patients with low back pain.

The following table lists adverse reactions that were reported in at least 2% of patients in placebo-controlled trials (N=5).

The common (≥1% to <10%) adverse drug reactions reported at least once by patients treated with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in the clinical trials organized by MedDRA's (Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities) System Organ Class and not represented in Table 1 were:

Eye disorders: vision blurred
Gastrointestinal disorders: diarrhea, abdominal pain, dyspepsia
General disorders and administration site conditions: dry mouth, appetite decreased, fatigue, lethargy, weakness, pyrexia, dehydration, weight decreased, edema
Nervous system disorders: insomnia
Psychiatricdisorders: anxiety, confusion, disorientation, restlessness, nervousness, depression
Respiratory, thoracic and mediastinal disorders: dyspnea
Vascular disorders: flushing and hypertension

Other less common adverse reactions known with opioid treatment that were seen <1% in the oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets trials include the following: Bradycardia, palpitation, syncope, tachycardia, postural hypotension, miosis, abdominal distention, ileus, hot flashes, allergic reactions, hypersensitivity, urticaria, oxygen saturation decreased, central nervous system depression, depressed level of consciousness, agitation, dysphoria, euphoric mood, hallucination, mental status changes, difficult micturition, urinary retention, hypoxia, respiratory depression, respiratory distress, clamminess, dermatitis, hypotension.

Post-marketing Experience
The following adverse reactions have been identified during post approval use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. Because these reactions are reported voluntarily from a population of uncertain size, it is not always possible to reliably estimate their frequency or establish a causal relationship to drug exposure.

Nervous system disorder: amnesia, convulsion, memory impairment

DRUG INTERACTIONS
Alcohol
Concomitant use of alcohol with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets can result in an increase of oxymorphone plasma levels and potentially fatal overdose of oxymorphone. Instruct patients not to consume alcoholic beverages or use prescription or non-prescription products containing alcohol while on oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablet therapy.

CNS Depressants
Concurrent use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets and other CNS depressants including sedatives, hypnotics, tranquilizers, general anesthetics, phenothiazines, other opioids, and alcohol can increase the risk of respiratory depression, hypotension, profound sedation, or coma. Monitor patients receiving CNS depressants and oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets for signs of respiratory depression and hypotension. When such combined therapy is contemplated, reduce the initial dose of one or both agents.

Mixed Agonist/Antagonist Opioid Analgesics
Mixed agonist/antagonist analgesics (i.e., pentazocine, nalbuphine, butorphanol, or buprenorphine) may reduce the analgesic effect of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets or may precipitate withdrawal symptoms in these patients. Avoid the use of mixed agonist/antagonist analgesics in patients receiving oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets.

Cimetidine
Cimetidine can potentiate opioid-induced respiratory depression. Monitor patients for respiratory depression when oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets and cimetidine are used concurrently.

Anticholinergics
Anticholinergics or other medications with anticholinergic activity when used concurrently with opioid analgesics may result in increased risk of urinary retention and/or severe constipation, which may lead to paralytic ileus. Monitor patients for signs of respiratory and central nervous system depression when oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are used concurrently with anticholinergic drugs.

USE IN SPECIFIC POPULATIONS
Pregnancy
The safety of using oxymorphone in pregnancy has not been established with regard to possible adverse effects on fetal development. The use of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in pregnancy, in nursing mothers, or in women of child-bearing potential requires that the possible benefits of the drug be weighed against the possible hazards to the mother and the child.

Prolonged use of opioid analgesics during pregnancy may cause fetal-neonatal physical dependence.

Teratogenic Effects (Pregnancy Category C)
There are no adequate and well-controlled studies of oxymorphone in pregnant women. Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

Oxymorphone hydrochloride administration did not cause malformations at any doses evaluated during developmental toxicity studies in rats (≤25 mg/kg/day) or rabbits (≤50 mg/kg/day). These doses are ~3-fold and ~12-fold the human dose of 40 mg every 12 hours, based on body surface area. There were no developmental effects in rats treated with 5 mg/kg/day or rabbits treated with 25 mg/kg/day. Fetal weights were reduced in rats and rabbits given doses of ≥10 mg/kg/day and 50 mg/kg/day, respectively. These doses are ~1.2-fold and ~12-fold the human dose of 40 mg every 12 hours based on body surface area, respectively. There were no effects of oxymorphone hydrochloride on intrauterine survival in rats at doses ≤25 mg/kg/day, or rabbits at ≤50 mg/kg/day in these studies (see Non-teratogenic Effects, below). In a study that was conducted prior to the establishment of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) and not according to current recommended methodology, a single subcutaneous injection of oxymorphone hydrochloride on gestation day 8 was reported to produce malformations in offspring of hamsters that received 15.5-fold the human dose of 40 mg every 12 hours based on body surface area. This dose also produced 20% maternal lethality.

Non-teratogenic Effects
Oxymorphone hydrochloride administration to female rats during gestation in a pre- and postnatal developmental toxicity study reduced mean litter size (18%) at a dose of 25 mg/kg/day, attributed to an increased incidence of stillborn pups. An increase in neonatal death occurred at ≥5 mg/kg/day. Post-natal survival of the pups was reduced throughout weaning following treatment of the dams with 25 mg/kg/day. Low pup birth weight and decreased postnatal weight gain occurred in pups born to oxymorphone-treated pregnant rats given a dose of 25 mg/kg/day. This dose is ~3-fold higher than the human dose of 40 mg every 12 hours on a body surface area basis.

Labor and Delivery
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are not for use in women during and immediately prior to labor, where shorter acting analgesics or other analgesic techniques are more appropriate. Occasionally, opioid analgesics may prolong labor through by temporarily reducing the strength, duration, and frequency of uterine contractions. However, these effects are not consistent and may be offset by an increased rate of cervical dilatation which tends to shorten labor.

Opioids cross the placenta and may produce respiratory depression and psychophysiologic effects in neonates. Closely observe neonates whose mothers received opioid analgesics during labor for signs of respiratory depression. An opioid antagonist, such as naloxone, should be available for reversal of opioid-induced respiratory depression in the neonate in such situations.

Nursing Mothers
It is not known whether oxymorphone is excreted in human milk. Because many drugs, including some opioids, are excreted in human milk, caution should be exercised when oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are administered to a nursing woman. Monitor infants who may be exposed to oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets through breast milk for excess sedation and respiratory depression. Withdrawal symptoms can occur in breast-fed infants when maternal administration of an opioid analgesic is stopped, or when breast-feeding is stopped.

Pediatric Use
The safety and effectiveness of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in patients below the age of 18 years have not been established.

Geriatric Use
Of the total number of subjects in clinical studies of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets, 27% were 65 and over, while 9% were 75 and over. No overall differences in effectiveness were observed between these subjects and younger subjects. There were several adverse events that were more frequently observed in subjects 65 and over compared to younger subjects. These adverse events included dizziness, somnolence, confusion, and nausea. On average, age greater than 65 years was associated with a 1.4-fold increase in oxymorphone AUC and a 1.5-fold increase in C_max. Initiate dosing with oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets in patients 65 years of age and over using the 5 mg dose and monitor closely for signs of respiratory and central nervous system depression when initiating and titrating oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets. For patients on prior opioid therapy, start at 50% of the starting dose for a younger patient on prior opioids and titrate slowly.

Hepatic Impairment
Patients with mild hepatic impairment have an increase in oxymorphone bioavailability of 1.6-fold. In opioid-naïve patients with mild hepatic impairment, initiate oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets using the 5 mg dose and monitor closely for respiratory and central nervous system depression. Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets are contraindicated for patients with moderate and severe hepatic impairment. For patients on prior opioid therapy, start at the 50% of the dose for that a patient with normal hepatic function on prior opioids and titrate slowly.

Renal Impairment
Patients with moderate to severe renal impairment were shown to have an increase in oxymorphone bioavailability ranging from 57-65%. Start opioid-naïve patients with the 5 mg dose of oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets and titrate slowly while closely monitoring for respiratory and central nervous system depression. For patients on prior opioid therapy, start at 50% of the dose for a patient with normal renal function on prior opioids and titrate slowly.

Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome
Chronic maternal use of oxymorphone during pregnancy can affect the fetus with subsequent withdrawal signs. Neonatal withdrawal syndrome presents as irritability, hyperactivity and abnormal sleep pattern, high pitched cry, tremor, vomiting, diarrhea and failure to gain weight. The onset, duration and severity of neonatal withdrawal syndrome vary based on the drug used, duration of use, the dose of last maternal use, and rate of elimination of the drug by the newborn. Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, unlike opioid withdrawal syndrome in adults, may be life-threatening and should be treated according to protocols developed by neonatology experts.

DRUG ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE
Controlled Substance
Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets contains oxymorphone, a mu opioid agonist and a Schedule II controlled substance with an abuse liability similar to other opioids includingfentanyl, hydromorphone, methadone, morphine, oxycodone and tapentadol. Oxymorphone hydrochloride extended-release tablets can be abused and is subject to criminal diversion.

The high drug content in extended release formulations adds to the risk of adverse outcomes from abuse and misuse.

Abuse
All patients treated with opioids require careful monitoring for signs of abuse and addiction, since use of opioid analgesic products carries the risk of addiction even under appropriate medical use.

Drug abuse is the intentional non-therapeutic use of an over-the-counter or prescription drug, even once, for its rewarding psychological or physiological effects. Drug abuse includes, but is not limited to the following examples: the use of a prescription or over-the counter drug to get "high", or the use of steroids for performance enhancement and muscle build up.

Drug addiction is a cluster of behavioral, cognitive, and physiological phenomena that develop after repeated substance use and include: a strong desire to take the drug, difficulties in controlling its use, persisting in its use despite harmful consequences, a higher priority given to drug use than to other activities and obligations, increased tolerance , and sometimes a physical withdrawal.

"Drug seeking" behavior is very common to addicts and drug abusers. Drug-seeking tactics include emergency calls or visits near the end of office hours, refusal to undergo appropriate examination, testing or referral, repeated claims of loss of prescriptions, tampering with prescriptions and reluctance to provide prior medical records or contact information for other treating ph